MANAGEMENT OF INVASIVE PLANTS IN THE WESTERN USA
  • Defining the Problem
    • What is a Weed? >
      • Federal Definitions of Noxious Weeds
    • Costs of invasive plants
    • Human Factor
    • Challenges of Invasive Plants
    • Wildfires in the Western USA >
      • Forest Fires: Structure
      • Bark Beetles & Forest Ecosystems
      • Rangeland Fires
    • Climate Change Impacts on Plants >
      • Climate Change: CO2, NO, UV, Ozone Impacts on Plants
      • Climate Change Impacts on Crops
      • Climate Change Impacts on C4 Plants
      • Climate Change Impacts on Rangeland
    • What are we doing?
  • Focus of this Project
    • Why Western States? >
      • Audience for these reports
    • History: Are we doomed to repeat it? >
      • Dust Bowl Re-visited >
        • China: Past & Present
        • UN Biodiversity Report
    • Policy vs. Practice
    • Ecosystems & Economics >
      • Reductionist Approach to science
      • Ecology & Feminism
      • Systems View of Life
      • Ecosystems Health
      • Economic Growth
      • Impact of the Petrochemical Industry
      • Interrelation of Economics & Ecology
    • Federal Agencies >
      • Federal Agencies and Invasive Species
      • History of Coordination with States
      • Challenges of Coordination between Federal Agencies
      • Collaboration or Confusion
    • Organizations to assist landowners
    • Federal Legislation on Invasive Species >
      • 1930s Federal Laws on Invasive Species
      • Federal Seed Act 1939
      • 1940s-1960s Federal Laws on Invasive Species
      • 1970s Federal Laws on Invasive Species
      • 1980s Federal Laws on Invasive Species
      • 1990s Federal Laws on Invasive Species
      • 2000-2010 Federal Laws on Invasive Species
      • 2011-2022 Federal Laws on Invasive Species
      • Federal Bills on Invasive Species not passed
      • Executive Orders on Invasive Species
      • Federal Excise Taxes
    • State Laws and Lists of Noxious Weeds
    • My Inspirations
  • Why we need plants
    • Native Plants
    • Plant Resources
  • Invasive Success Hypotheses
    • Unified Framework
    • Role of Diversity >
      • How Ecosystems Maintain Diversity
      • Fluctuation Dependent Mechanisms
      • Competition-based coexistence mechanisms
      • Niche Differences
      • Species Richness
    • Enemy Release Hypothesis
    • Constitutive Defense Mechanisms
    • Evolution of Increased Competitive Ability
    • Role of Microbes
    • Indirect Defense Mechanisms
    • Novel weapons hypothesis
    • Evolutionary Shifts
    • Resource Allocation
    • Evolutionary Dynamics >
      • Pre-introduction evolutionary history
      • Sampling Effect
      • Founder Effect
      • Admixture, hybridization and polyploidization
      • Rapid Evolution
      • Epigenetics
      • Second Genomes
    • Role of Hybridization
    • Role of Native Plant Neighbors
    • Species Performance
    • Role of Herbivory
    • Evolutionary Reduced Competitive Ability
    • Summary Thoughts on Research
  • Historical Record
    • Regional Conferences
    • Timeline
  • Innovative Solutions
    • Agricultural Best Practices >
      • Ecologically based Successional Management
      • Perennial Crops, Intercropping, beneficial insects
      • Soil Solarization
      • Natural Farming
      • Permaculture
      • Organic Farming
      • Embedding Natural Habitats
      • Conservation Tillage
      • Crop Rotation
      • Water Use Practices
      • Tree Planting: Pros & Cons
    • Grazing Solutions >
      • Sheep and Goat Grazing
      • Cattle & Sheep Grazing
      • Cattle and Bison Grazing
      • Grazing and Revegetation
    • Rangeland Restoration >
      • Federal Goals for Rangelands
      • Novel Ecosystems
      • Prairie Restoration >
        • Prairie Restoration Workshop
        • Weed Prevention Areas
        • California grassland restoration
        • Selah: Bamberger Ranch Preserve
      • Sagebrush Steppe Restoration >
        • Low Nitrogen in Sagebrush Steppe
      • Revegetation with Native Plants
      • Dogs as detectors of noxious weeds
    • Nudges
  • Biological Control
    • Insects as Biocontrol >
      • Impacts of Biocontrol Agents on Non-Target Species
      • Indirect Impact of Biocontrol on Native Species
    • Challenges of Using Biocontrols >
      • DNA studies on Biocontrol Insects
      • Biocontrol takes time
    • Prioritization process for Biocontrol Programs
    • Evolutionary changes impact Biocontrol
    • Vertebrates as Biocontrol Agents
  • Herbicides: History and Impacts
    • Effectiveness of Herbicides in Agricultural Lands
    • Effectiveness of Herbicides in Rangelands
    • History of Use of Herbicides and Pesticides Prior to and During WWII
    • Herbicide use during and post-World War II >
      • 2,4-D Herbicide Use
      • 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T, post-World War II
    • Modern use of Herbicides >
      • Atrazine Herbicide
      • Dicamba Herbicide
      • Glyphosate Herbicide
      • Paraquat Dichloride
      • Picolinic acid family of herbicides >
        • Picloram (Tordon 22K) Herbicide
        • Triclopyr Herbicide
    • Herbicide Resistance in Invasive Plants >
      • Herbicide Resistant Crops
      • Controlling herbicide-resistant weeds in herbicide-resistant crops
      • Best Management Practices
    • Myth of the Silver Bullet
    • Myth of Eradication
    • Merging of Agrochemical Companies
    • Impacts of Pesticides on Environment and Human Health >
      • Pesticide Drift
      • Impacts of Pesticides on Biological Diversity
      • Impacts of Herbicides on Native Plants
      • Pesticide Impacts on Insects >
        • Butterflies: The Impacts of Herbicides
        • Monarch Butterflies: Impacts of Herbicides
      • Impacts of Pesticides on Wildlife >
        • Reptiles & Amphibians: Pesticide Impacts
      • Pesticide Residue in Foods
    • Funding for Research on Pesticides
    • Commentary on Herbicide Use
  • Interviews
    • Interviews Biocontrol >
      • Biocontrol Wyoming
      • Montana Biocontrol Interview Maggio
      • Montana Biocontrol Interview Breitenfeldt
    • California Interviews >
      • Robert Price
      • Doug Johnson
    • Colorado Interviews >
      • George Beck Interview
      • Scott Nissen Interview
    • Idaho Interviews >
      • Purple Sage Organic Farms in Idaho
    • Montana Interviews >
      • Jasmine Reimer Interview Montana
      • Organic Farms Montana Interviews
    • Texas Interviews
    • Washington Interviews >
      • Ray Willard
    • Wyoming Interviews >
      • Slade Franklin Interview
      • John Samson Interview
    • Wyoming Weed and Pest Districts >
      • Josh Shorb Interview
      • Slade Franklin Interview 2
      • Lars Baker Interview
      • Steve Brill Interview
      • George Hittle Interview
      • Peter Illoway Interview
      • Robert Jenn Interview
      • Sharon Johnson Interview
      • Larry Justesen Interview
      • Gale Lamb Interview
      • Stephen McNamee Interview
      • Allen Mooney Interview
      • Rob Orchard Interview
      • Robert Parsons Interview
      • Dick Sackett Interview
      • Comments by Delena
    • NRCS Interviews: Wyoming
  • Western Weed Control Conference 1940s Minutes
    • 1942 Conference
    • 1945 Conference
    • 1946 Conference
  • Who am I?
    • My Work
    • My Adventures
    • Contact Page
  • Road Logs
    • Colorado Road Logs
    • Idaho Road Logs
    • Montana Road Logs
    • New Mexico Road Logs
    • Texas Road Logs
    • Wyoming Road Logs
  • Bibliography

 Defining the Problem 
​of Invasive Species

Photo: Giane Cane & Salt Cedar along the Rio Grande, Big Bend National Park, Texas. © 2017 Delena Norris-Tull

Why should we be concerned with the damage caused by invasive plant species?

Summary by Dr. Delena Norris-Tull, Professor Emerita of Science Education, University of Montana Western, July 2020.

​Here are some of the reasons provided by various scientists and agencies:
  • Some invasive plant species have displaced native plant species in the natural landscape. Approximately 400 of the 958 (42%) native plant species listed as threatened or endangered in the U.S. are impacted by non-native species (Pimentel, Zuniga, & Morrison, 2004). Wilcove, et al, 1998, estimate the percentage higher, at 49%.
  • A number of invasive plant species are expanding their ranges at an alarmingly rapid rate.
  • Some species, such as cheatgrass, are already facilitating an increase in Western wildfires.

"The fundamental basis of the community is agriculture" (‘Abdu’l-Bahá, The Promulgation of Universal Peace, p. 217).)

“Invasive exotic plants constitute 8 to 47 percent of the total flora of most States in the United States… There are approximately 4,500 exotic species in the United States that have established naturalized populations and at least 15 percent of these cause severe harm” (Sieg, et al, 2010, p. 35).
 
Dix & Britton, 2010, p. 1, state, “Invasive species significantly impact U.S. ecosystems and are one of the greatest threats to forest, rangeland, and urban forest health. They have contributed to increases in fire frequency and intensity; reduced water resources, forest growth, and timber; and negatively affected native species and their habitats throughout the United States. Global trade, climate change, and innovations in human transportation are just a few of the factors that have increased the rate of invasive species introduction and the costs associated with their prevention, quarantine, and management. Forest and rangeland managers urgently need effective management techniques to reduce invasive species’ effects.”

Some invasive plant species have impacted wildlife and livestock, either directly, such as by poisoning livestock or wildlife, or indirectly, by altering habitats.
 
For example, salt cedar (Tamarix spp.) and Russian olive (Elaeagnus angustifolia) were both introduced into the US as ornamental trees. Salt cedar has created problems along the Rio Grande, as it’s long taproots have displaced native shrubs and trees along the river, and its high rate of evapotranspiration reduces water availability in the river. Both species “invade moist pastures and rangeland and cause serious forage-production and soil-water losses” (Carman & Brotherson, 1982).
 
But removal of invasive species, which have often become embedded into native habitats for decades, can cause issues of its own. Salt cedar provides “suitable habitat for the endangered southwestern willow flycatcher… and other avian species that nest in midcanopy vegetation, but poor habitat for many other avian species” (Sheley, et al, 2011).” Sheley, et al., 2011, describe various studies that have shown increases in wildlife when invasive species have been removed, and several cases in which removal methods have had a negative impact on wildlife.
 
And Nandina domestica, an invasive shrub that has been widely used as an ornamental, has berries that are toxic to humans but also have caused the death of various animals, including domestic dogs and cats, livestock, and wildlife (particularly native birds). The berries contain cyanide, among other toxic chemicals (Cywinski, 2022).
​
Defining the problem of invasive plants
​​
 Wilcove, et al., 1998, reminded us that, “Biologists are nearly unanimous in their belief that humanity is in the process of extirpating a significant portion of the earth’s species.”
 
According to Wilson, 1992, the manner in which we are doing so falls into four major categories, overexploitation (including hunting and fishing), habitat destruction, the introduction of non-native (alien) species, and the spread of diseases carried by alien species. Wilcove, et al., 1998, add pollution to Wilson’s list. And they expect climate change to be an important factor in the future. Wilcove, et al., 1998, point out that, “In general, scientists agree that habitat destruction is currently the primary lethal agent, followed by the spread of alien species…. However, apart from several notable exceptions – including studies of North American fishes…, endangered plants and animals in the United States…, aquatic organisms,…and imperiled birds… - few quantitative studies of threats to species have been conducted. Much more studies are needed to provide conservationists, land stewards, and decision makers with a better understanding of the relationships between specific human activities and the loss of biodiversity.”

By analyzing the data on human activities that have threatened “1880 (75%) of the 2490 imperiled species, subspecies, and populations,” Wilcove, et al, 1998, “used the resulting database to determine the relative significance of the major threats” to native species. While acknowledging that data on various species was often sparse, they concluded that habitat degradation (affecting 85% of imperiled species) and the introduction of alien species (affecting 49% of imperiled species) account for the vast majority of threats to native species. They found that pollution was the third most prevalent threat (affecting 24% of imperiled species).
 
Habitat degradation is closely linked to the introduction of alien species. Whenever and wherever natural habitats are altered, non-native species, particularly plants, can be expected to enter the ecosystem, especially if native plant species are not rapidly re-planted in the damaged areas.
 
Wilcove, et al., 1998, found that siltation (a form of pollution) is a major threat to aquatic organisms. Siltation is closely linked to both habitat degradation and the introduction of alien species. These three major threats to native species (habitat degradation, introduction of alien species, and pollution) are all closely interlinked.
 
Habitat degradation

Using data from the US EPA on endangered species (including both species currently listed as endangered, and species proposed for listing), Wilcove, et al., 1998, identified 11 major categories of habitat destruction and degradation and examined the extent to which they contribute to plants and animals becoming endangered. For the following activities, they calculated the following: “agriculture (affecting 38% of endangered species), commercial development (35%), water development (30% when agricultural diversion is included),…and infrastructure development (17%)…. Within the category of infrastructure development, roads affect a wide array of species (15% of all endangered species).” Other forms of habitat degradation also have a significant impact on native species: outdoor recreation, especially the use of off-road vehicles, affects 27% of endangered species. Logging (affecting 12% of endangered species), mining (11%), and grazing (22%) also are important contributors to loss of species. “Livestock grazing… is particularly harmful to plants, affecting 33% of endangered plant species compared to 14% of endangered animals.” And they found that “168 species (14%) are threatened by disruption of fire regimens in the ecosystem...Of these, 85 (7%) are threatened by fire suppression and 83 (7%) are threatened by controlled or uncontrolled fires.” The remaining forms of habitat degradation affect the following percentages of endangered species: military activities (4%), dams, impoundments, and other barriers (17%), and pollutants (particularly siltation and nutrient inputs) (20%).

Introduction to the research on invasive species

In 2010, teams of researchers conducted reviews of the research on invasive species, in order to facilitate the development of a twenty-year research agenda for the US Forest Service. This external review included research on the following categories of invasive species: insects, plants, terrestrial animals, aquatic organisms, and invasive soil organisms. This valuable research review was coalesced by teams of Forest Service researchers into 12 visionary papers to “identify future invasive species research issues and priorities and provide the Forest Service and its partners with a framework for programming and budgeting.” Their recommendations were published in the report, A dynamic invasive species research vision: Opportunities and priorities 2009-2029 (Dix & Britton, 2010).
 
In that document, Britton, et al., 2010, p. 4, state, “Invasive species are defined in Executive Order 13112: ‘Invasive species are those species that are not native to the ecosystem under consideration and whose introduction causes or is likely to cause economic or environmental harm. Invasive species include: plants, animals, fish, insects, diseases, invertebrates, and others.’ The Forest Service [Research and Development] invasive species research program includes research on species that are not native to the United States and those that are native but are advancing to invade other areas due to the increased connectivity of ecosystems and changing environmental conditions. Our research is conducted throughout the continental United States; in the tropical forests of Hawaii, the western Pacific, and Puerto Rico; and internationally. We conduct research at a variety of scales in wilderness, watersheds, old-growth forests, wetlands, aquatic systems, urban interface forests, grasslands, plantations, and utility corridors.”
 
As a result of the external research review, Forest Service Research and Development teams identified four overarching priorities for future research on invasive species (Britton, et al., 2010, p. 3-4):
  1. “Quantify Invasive Species Biology, Ecology, Interactions, and Effects
  2. Predicting and Prioritizing Invasive Species
  3. Identifying and Detecting Invasive Species
  4. Managing Invasive Species and Altered Systems”

I strongly encourage reading the Dix & Britton, 2010, document. I include in these webpages my own summaries of the research on invasive plant species. The external review conducted for the US Forest Service Report is now over ten years old and does not examine a number of the topics I include in these webpages, such as the history of the development of State laws related to invasive species, the history of the use of herbicides, research on herbicides, research on the factors that facilitate biological invasions, the challenges and limitations of biocontrol agents, and the challenges of rangeland restoration.

References:
  • Britton, et al. (May, 2010). Invasive species overarching priorities to 2029. In M.E. Dix & K. Britton (Eds.), A dynamic invasive species research vision: Opportunities and priorities 2009-2029. Washington, D.C.: USDA Forest Service.
  • Carman, J.G., & Brotherson, J.D. (July 1982). Comparisons of Sites Infested and Not Infested with Saltcedar (Tamarix pentandra) and Russian Olive (Elaeagnus angustifolia). Weed Science, 30(4): 360-364.
  • Cywinski, R. (Winter 2022). What’s so dangerous about invasive species: Nandina domestica? Texas Native Plants 40(1): 14-15. Fredericksburg, TX: Native Plant Society of Texas.
  • Dix, M.E., & Britton, K. (Eds.). (May, 2010). A dynamic invasive species research vision: Opportunities and priorities 2009-2029. Washington, D.C.: USDA Forest Service.
  • Merritt, W.J. (2002). A special regard for agriculture. Knoxville, Tennessee: Stonehaven Press.
  • Pimental, D., Zuniga, R. & Morrison, D. (December, 2004). Update on the environmental and economic costs associated with alien-invasive species in the United States. Ecological Economics: 52 (2005), 273– 288.
  • Sheley, R.L., James, J.J., Rinella, M. J., Blumenthal, D., & DiTomaso, J.M. (2011). Invasive plant management on anticipated conservation benefits: A scientific assessment. In D.D. Briske (Ed.) Conservation benefits of rangeland practices: Assessment, recommendation, and knowledge gaps (pp. 293-336). USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service.
  • Sieg, C.H., et al. (May, 2010). The role of the Forest Service in nonnative invasive plant research. In M.E. Dix & K. Britton (Eds.), A dynamic invasive species research vision: Opportunities and priorities 2009-2029. Washington, D.C.: USDA Forest Service.
  • Wilcove, D.S., Rothstein, D., Dubow, J., Phillips, A., & Losos, E. (1998). Quantifying threats to imperiled species in the United States. BioScience, 48: 607-615.
  • Wilson, E.O. (1992). The Diversity of Life. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press.

Links to next sections:
What is a Weed?
costs of invasive plants
The human factor
THE CHALLENGES OF INVASIVE PLANTS
Wildfires
Climate Change
DO WE KNOW WHAT WE ARE DOING?
Copyright: Dr. Delena Norris-Tull, July 2020. Management of Invasive Plants in the Western USA.

These webpages are always under construction. I welcome corrections and additions to any page.
​Send me an email, and I can send you the original Word format version of any page you wish to correct.
contact Dr. Norris-Tull
Bibliography
who am i?
My work
my inspirations
my adventures
  • Defining the Problem
    • What is a Weed? >
      • Federal Definitions of Noxious Weeds
    • Costs of invasive plants
    • Human Factor
    • Challenges of Invasive Plants
    • Wildfires in the Western USA >
      • Forest Fires: Structure
      • Bark Beetles & Forest Ecosystems
      • Rangeland Fires
    • Climate Change Impacts on Plants >
      • Climate Change: CO2, NO, UV, Ozone Impacts on Plants
      • Climate Change Impacts on Crops
      • Climate Change Impacts on C4 Plants
      • Climate Change Impacts on Rangeland
    • What are we doing?
  • Focus of this Project
    • Why Western States? >
      • Audience for these reports
    • History: Are we doomed to repeat it? >
      • Dust Bowl Re-visited >
        • China: Past & Present
        • UN Biodiversity Report
    • Policy vs. Practice
    • Ecosystems & Economics >
      • Reductionist Approach to science
      • Ecology & Feminism
      • Systems View of Life
      • Ecosystems Health
      • Economic Growth
      • Impact of the Petrochemical Industry
      • Interrelation of Economics & Ecology
    • Federal Agencies >
      • Federal Agencies and Invasive Species
      • History of Coordination with States
      • Challenges of Coordination between Federal Agencies
      • Collaboration or Confusion
    • Organizations to assist landowners
    • Federal Legislation on Invasive Species >
      • 1930s Federal Laws on Invasive Species
      • Federal Seed Act 1939
      • 1940s-1960s Federal Laws on Invasive Species
      • 1970s Federal Laws on Invasive Species
      • 1980s Federal Laws on Invasive Species
      • 1990s Federal Laws on Invasive Species
      • 2000-2010 Federal Laws on Invasive Species
      • 2011-2022 Federal Laws on Invasive Species
      • Federal Bills on Invasive Species not passed
      • Executive Orders on Invasive Species
      • Federal Excise Taxes
    • State Laws and Lists of Noxious Weeds
    • My Inspirations
  • Why we need plants
    • Native Plants
    • Plant Resources
  • Invasive Success Hypotheses
    • Unified Framework
    • Role of Diversity >
      • How Ecosystems Maintain Diversity
      • Fluctuation Dependent Mechanisms
      • Competition-based coexistence mechanisms
      • Niche Differences
      • Species Richness
    • Enemy Release Hypothesis
    • Constitutive Defense Mechanisms
    • Evolution of Increased Competitive Ability
    • Role of Microbes
    • Indirect Defense Mechanisms
    • Novel weapons hypothesis
    • Evolutionary Shifts
    • Resource Allocation
    • Evolutionary Dynamics >
      • Pre-introduction evolutionary history
      • Sampling Effect
      • Founder Effect
      • Admixture, hybridization and polyploidization
      • Rapid Evolution
      • Epigenetics
      • Second Genomes
    • Role of Hybridization
    • Role of Native Plant Neighbors
    • Species Performance
    • Role of Herbivory
    • Evolutionary Reduced Competitive Ability
    • Summary Thoughts on Research
  • Historical Record
    • Regional Conferences
    • Timeline
  • Innovative Solutions
    • Agricultural Best Practices >
      • Ecologically based Successional Management
      • Perennial Crops, Intercropping, beneficial insects
      • Soil Solarization
      • Natural Farming
      • Permaculture
      • Organic Farming
      • Embedding Natural Habitats
      • Conservation Tillage
      • Crop Rotation
      • Water Use Practices
      • Tree Planting: Pros & Cons
    • Grazing Solutions >
      • Sheep and Goat Grazing
      • Cattle & Sheep Grazing
      • Cattle and Bison Grazing
      • Grazing and Revegetation
    • Rangeland Restoration >
      • Federal Goals for Rangelands
      • Novel Ecosystems
      • Prairie Restoration >
        • Prairie Restoration Workshop
        • Weed Prevention Areas
        • California grassland restoration
        • Selah: Bamberger Ranch Preserve
      • Sagebrush Steppe Restoration >
        • Low Nitrogen in Sagebrush Steppe
      • Revegetation with Native Plants
      • Dogs as detectors of noxious weeds
    • Nudges
  • Biological Control
    • Insects as Biocontrol >
      • Impacts of Biocontrol Agents on Non-Target Species
      • Indirect Impact of Biocontrol on Native Species
    • Challenges of Using Biocontrols >
      • DNA studies on Biocontrol Insects
      • Biocontrol takes time
    • Prioritization process for Biocontrol Programs
    • Evolutionary changes impact Biocontrol
    • Vertebrates as Biocontrol Agents
  • Herbicides: History and Impacts
    • Effectiveness of Herbicides in Agricultural Lands
    • Effectiveness of Herbicides in Rangelands
    • History of Use of Herbicides and Pesticides Prior to and During WWII
    • Herbicide use during and post-World War II >
      • 2,4-D Herbicide Use
      • 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T, post-World War II
    • Modern use of Herbicides >
      • Atrazine Herbicide
      • Dicamba Herbicide
      • Glyphosate Herbicide
      • Paraquat Dichloride
      • Picolinic acid family of herbicides >
        • Picloram (Tordon 22K) Herbicide
        • Triclopyr Herbicide
    • Herbicide Resistance in Invasive Plants >
      • Herbicide Resistant Crops
      • Controlling herbicide-resistant weeds in herbicide-resistant crops
      • Best Management Practices
    • Myth of the Silver Bullet
    • Myth of Eradication
    • Merging of Agrochemical Companies
    • Impacts of Pesticides on Environment and Human Health >
      • Pesticide Drift
      • Impacts of Pesticides on Biological Diversity
      • Impacts of Herbicides on Native Plants
      • Pesticide Impacts on Insects >
        • Butterflies: The Impacts of Herbicides
        • Monarch Butterflies: Impacts of Herbicides
      • Impacts of Pesticides on Wildlife >
        • Reptiles & Amphibians: Pesticide Impacts
      • Pesticide Residue in Foods
    • Funding for Research on Pesticides
    • Commentary on Herbicide Use
  • Interviews
    • Interviews Biocontrol >
      • Biocontrol Wyoming
      • Montana Biocontrol Interview Maggio
      • Montana Biocontrol Interview Breitenfeldt
    • California Interviews >
      • Robert Price
      • Doug Johnson
    • Colorado Interviews >
      • George Beck Interview
      • Scott Nissen Interview
    • Idaho Interviews >
      • Purple Sage Organic Farms in Idaho
    • Montana Interviews >
      • Jasmine Reimer Interview Montana
      • Organic Farms Montana Interviews
    • Texas Interviews
    • Washington Interviews >
      • Ray Willard
    • Wyoming Interviews >
      • Slade Franklin Interview
      • John Samson Interview
    • Wyoming Weed and Pest Districts >
      • Josh Shorb Interview
      • Slade Franklin Interview 2
      • Lars Baker Interview
      • Steve Brill Interview
      • George Hittle Interview
      • Peter Illoway Interview
      • Robert Jenn Interview
      • Sharon Johnson Interview
      • Larry Justesen Interview
      • Gale Lamb Interview
      • Stephen McNamee Interview
      • Allen Mooney Interview
      • Rob Orchard Interview
      • Robert Parsons Interview
      • Dick Sackett Interview
      • Comments by Delena
    • NRCS Interviews: Wyoming
  • Western Weed Control Conference 1940s Minutes
    • 1942 Conference
    • 1945 Conference
    • 1946 Conference
  • Who am I?
    • My Work
    • My Adventures
    • Contact Page
  • Road Logs
    • Colorado Road Logs
    • Idaho Road Logs
    • Montana Road Logs
    • New Mexico Road Logs
    • Texas Road Logs
    • Wyoming Road Logs
  • Bibliography