MANAGEMENT OF INVASIVE PLANTS IN THE WESTERN USA
  • Defining the Problem
    • What is a Weed? >
      • Federal Definitions of Noxious Weeds
    • Costs of invasive plants
    • Human Factor
    • Challenges of Invasive Plants
    • Wildfires in the Western USA >
      • Forest Fires: Structure
      • Bark Beetles & Forest Ecosystems
      • Rangeland Fires
    • Climate Change Impacts on Plants >
      • Climate Change: CO2, NO, UV, Ozone Impacts on Plants
      • Climate Change Impacts on Crops
      • Climate Change Impacts on C4 Plants
      • Climate Change Impacts on Rangeland
    • What are we doing?
  • Focus of this Project
    • Why Western States? >
      • Audience for these reports
    • History: Are we doomed to repeat it? >
      • Dust Bowl Re-visited >
        • China: Past & Present
        • UN Biodiversity Report
    • Policy vs. Practice
    • Ecosystems & Economics >
      • Reductionist Approach to science
      • Ecology & Feminism
      • Systems View of Life
      • Ecosystems Health
      • Economic Growth
      • Impact of the Petrochemical Industry
      • Interrelation of Economics & Ecology
    • Federal Agencies >
      • Federal Agencies and Invasive Species
      • History of Coordination with States
      • Challenges of Coordination between Federal Agencies
      • Collaboration or Confusion
    • Organizations to assist landowners
    • Federal Legislation on Invasive Species >
      • 1930s Federal Laws on Invasive Species
      • Federal Seed Act 1939
      • 1940s-1960s Federal Laws on Invasive Species
      • 1970s Federal Laws on Invasive Species
      • 1980s Federal Laws on Invasive Species
      • 1990s Federal Laws on Invasive Species
      • 2000-2010 Federal Laws on Invasive Species
      • 2011-2022 Federal Laws on Invasive Species
      • Federal Bills on Invasive Species not passed
      • Executive Orders on Invasive Species
      • Federal Excise Taxes
    • State Laws and Lists of Noxious Weeds
    • My Inspirations
  • Why we need plants
    • Native Plants
    • Plant Resources
  • Invasive Success Hypotheses
    • Unified Framework
    • Role of Diversity >
      • How Ecosystems Maintain Diversity
      • Fluctuation Dependent Mechanisms
      • Competition-based coexistence mechanisms
      • Niche Differences
      • Species Richness
    • Enemy Release Hypothesis
    • Constitutive Defense Mechanisms
    • Evolution of Increased Competitive Ability
    • Role of Microbes
    • Indirect Defense Mechanisms
    • Novel weapons hypothesis
    • Evolutionary Shifts
    • Resource Allocation
    • Evolutionary Dynamics >
      • Pre-introduction evolutionary history
      • Sampling Effect
      • Founder Effect
      • Admixture, hybridization and polyploidization
      • Rapid Evolution
      • Epigenetics
      • Second Genomes
    • Role of Hybridization
    • Role of Native Plant Neighbors
    • Species Performance
    • Role of Herbivory
    • Evolutionary Reduced Competitive Ability
    • Summary Thoughts on Research
  • Historical Record
    • Regional Conferences
    • Timeline
  • Innovative Solutions
    • Agricultural Best Practices >
      • Ecologically based Successional Management
      • Perennial Crops, Intercropping, beneficial insects
      • Soil Solarization
      • Natural Farming
      • Permaculture
      • Organic Farming
      • Embedding Natural Habitats
      • Conservation Tillage
      • Crop Rotation
      • Water Use Practices
      • Tree Planting: Pros & Cons
    • Grazing Solutions >
      • Sheep and Goat Grazing
      • Cattle & Sheep Grazing
      • Cattle and Bison Grazing
      • Grazing and Revegetation
    • Rangeland Restoration >
      • Federal Goals for Rangelands
      • Novel Ecosystems
      • Prairie Restoration >
        • Prairie Restoration Workshop
        • Weed Prevention Areas
        • California grassland restoration
        • Selah: Bamberger Ranch Preserve
      • Sagebrush Steppe Restoration >
        • Low Nitrogen in Sagebrush Steppe
      • Revegetation with Native Plants
      • Dogs as detectors of noxious weeds
    • Nudges
  • Biological Control
    • Insects as Biocontrol >
      • Impacts of Biocontrol Agents on Non-Target Species
      • Indirect Impact of Biocontrol on Native Species
    • Challenges of Using Biocontrols >
      • DNA studies on Biocontrol Insects
      • Biocontrol takes time
    • Prioritization process for Biocontrol Programs
    • Evolutionary changes impact Biocontrol
    • Vertebrates as Biocontrol Agents
  • Herbicides: History and Impacts
    • Effectiveness of Herbicides in Agricultural Lands
    • Effectiveness of Herbicides in Rangelands
    • History of Use of Herbicides and Pesticides Prior to and During WWII
    • Herbicide use during and post-World War II >
      • 2,4-D Herbicide Use
      • 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T, post-World War II
    • Modern use of Herbicides >
      • Atrazine Herbicide
      • Dicamba Herbicide
      • Glyphosate Herbicide
      • Paraquat Dichloride
      • Picolinic acid family of herbicides >
        • Picloram (Tordon 22K) Herbicide
        • Triclopyr Herbicide
    • Herbicide Resistance in Invasive Plants >
      • Herbicide Resistant Crops
      • Controlling herbicide-resistant weeds in herbicide-resistant crops
      • Best Management Practices
    • Myth of the Silver Bullet
    • Myth of Eradication
    • Merging of Agrochemical Companies
    • Impacts of Pesticides on Environment and Human Health >
      • Pesticide Drift
      • Impacts of Pesticides on Biological Diversity
      • Impacts of Herbicides on Native Plants
      • Pesticide Impacts on Insects >
        • Butterflies: The Impacts of Herbicides
        • Monarch Butterflies: Impacts of Herbicides
      • Impacts of Pesticides on Wildlife >
        • Reptiles & Amphibians: Pesticide Impacts
      • Pesticide Residue in Foods
    • Funding for Research on Pesticides
    • Commentary on Herbicide Use
  • Interviews
    • Interviews Biocontrol >
      • Biocontrol Wyoming
      • Montana Biocontrol Interview Maggio
      • Montana Biocontrol Interview Breitenfeldt
    • California Interviews >
      • Robert Price
      • Doug Johnson
    • Colorado Interviews >
      • George Beck Interview
      • Scott Nissen Interview
    • Idaho Interviews >
      • Purple Sage Organic Farms in Idaho
    • Montana Interviews >
      • Jasmine Reimer Interview Montana
      • Organic Farms Montana Interviews
    • Texas Interviews
    • Washington Interviews >
      • Ray Willard
    • Wyoming Interviews >
      • Slade Franklin Interview
      • John Samson Interview
    • Wyoming Weed and Pest Districts >
      • Josh Shorb Interview
      • Slade Franklin Interview 2
      • Lars Baker Interview
      • Steve Brill Interview
      • George Hittle Interview
      • Peter Illoway Interview
      • Robert Jenn Interview
      • Sharon Johnson Interview
      • Larry Justesen Interview
      • Gale Lamb Interview
      • Stephen McNamee Interview
      • Allen Mooney Interview
      • Rob Orchard Interview
      • Robert Parsons Interview
      • Dick Sackett Interview
      • Comments by Delena
    • NRCS Interviews: Wyoming
  • Western Weed Control Conference 1940s Minutes
    • 1942 Conference
    • 1945 Conference
    • 1946 Conference
  • Who am I?
    • My Work
    • My Adventures
    • Contact Page
  • Road Logs
    • Colorado Road Logs
    • Idaho Road Logs
    • Montana Road Logs
    • New Mexico Road Logs
    • Texas Road Logs
    • Wyoming Road Logs
  • Bibliography

Crop Rotation

Photo: Chinese farm, north of Xi'an, below eroded terraces on the Loess Plateau. © 2017 Delena Norris-Tull

Crop Rotation

​
Summaries of the research and commentary by Dr. Delena Norris-Tull, Professor Emerita of Science Education, University of Montana Western, September 2020-2022.

Crop rotation is an agricultural practice that helps to reduce the spread of invasive plants. The World Economic Forum developed a report, Transforming Food Systems with Farmers, to assist the European Union nations in developing sustainable agricultural practices, practices the WEF calls Climate-Smart Agriculture. The report states that, "A meta-analysis found that farmers implementing just three climate-smart practices (no-till, cover crops and diversified crop rotations) could increase their profit by more than 11% and reduce the cost per hectare by 37% compared to conventional practices" (p.13).
 
Pulse crops in Montana, rotated with grains, helps break the disease cycle and reduce weeds, as well as restoring nitrogen to the soil. Pulses are also gluten-free crops. Pulses such as chickpeas are in high demand in the Middle East and China. Organic pulses sell at a high price. To change to organic farming, use alfalfa to restore nitrogen to the soil before you plant organic grains or pulses (interview on Montana Ag Live, March 31, 2019, Dean Folkvord, Founder of Wheat Montana Farms).
 
Incorporating cover crops within the cropping system “can provide many agronomic benefits, including improved nutrient cycling efficiency, pest suppression, soil and water quality, and cash-crop productivity….Crop rotations that utilize leguminous winter cover crop can also supplement N fertilizer inputs while producing crop yields comparable with conventional fertilizer-based systems and at the same time reduce N leaching up to 40%” (Curran, et al., 2015.) In the mid-Atlantic States, hairy vetch has potential as a useful cover crop, but it also can become weedy in the following crop, particularly if the next crop is winter wheat or another winter annual cereal. Curran, et al., 2015, compared the effectiveness of various herbicides in controlling hairy vetch, used as a cover crop, when winter wheat is used next in the crop rotation prior to summer planting of corn or soybean.

Which crop to use?

One factor that has discouraged farmers from incorporating crop rotation into their practice is the lack of adequate research on the impact of various rotational crops.
 
In California, the rice crop was severely reduced from 2021 to 2022, due to drought. Researchers at the University of California Davis have developed a new tool to assist rice farmers in using crop rotation to reduce losses due to drought. The crop rotation calculator enables farmers in the Sacramento Valley to project the economic impacts of using crops more tolerant of drought: dry beans, safflower, sunflower, and tomato. The research was funded by the USDA National Institute of Food and Agriculture, through a grant from the Western IPM Center.
 
Climate change is causing more frequent and more severe drought conditions in Western States. Tools that enable farmers to estimate the economic impact of diverse crops can assist them to select the most appropriate rotational crop for their fields.
 
Research on herbicide use within a crop rotation system
 
Data on the use of selective herbicides to control Vicia species during the crop phase of the rotation (rather than the more common practice of herbicide use before the cash-crop is planted) had not been studied. And hairy vetch had not been listed on labels for herbicides used for broadleaf weed control within winter wheat. Curran, et al., 2015, carried out a two-year experiment to determine which, and when applied, herbicides would work best to reduce hairy vetch within winter wheat, in the mid-Atlantic States of Pennsylvania and Maryland.
 
In early October, hairy vetch was planted first, with winter wheat planted immediately afterward. Nitrogen fertilization was applied before planting and at spring green-up. Fall post-emergent herbicides were applied in late fall (late November to early December). In the spring, additional fertilization was applied + spring herbicide. The following herbicide treatments were compared, when applied in late fall, after emergence of wheat and hairy vetch, and/or in spring (April): (1) synthetic auxins, (2) ALS inhibitors, (3) a protoporphyrinogen oxidase inhibitor, and (4) different combinations of 1 and 2.
 
Curran, et al., 2015, results: “Among synthetic auxins…, hairy vetch control was similarly high (>90%) after clopyralid, dicamba, or dicamb+2,4-D amine applied as either a fall or spring POST application. These herbicides were consistently effective for control of hairy vetch. A spring application of 2,4-D amine at 140g ha-1 resulted in better hairy vetch control (91%) compared with the fall application (41%).” A lower rate of 2,4-D amine, 70g ha-1, resulted in less than 75% control in both fall and spring timings. Curran has found that ester formulations of 2,4-D are better at hairy vetch control than amine formulations.
 
“Fall application of MCPA provided only 35 to 44% hairy vetch control.” Spring applications provided 59% control at lower rates, and 82% at higher rates. “With the exception of thifensulfuron applied alone, spring applications of ALS inhibitors…resulted in high (>90%) levels of hairy vetch control. Hairy vetch control after fall applications of ALS inhibitors was variable.”
 
Both fall and spring applications of prosulfuron and pyroxsulam were successful, with at least 95% control. “Fall application of mesosulfuron-methyl, thifensulfuron, tribenuron-methyl, and thifensulfuron/ tribenuron-methyl resulted in less than 75% hairy vetch control. Both fall and spring applications of thifensulfuron applied alone resulted in poor (<55%) hairy vetch control.” Fall and spring applications of the PPO inhibitor carfentrazone-ethyl had less than 75% control. Winter wheat injury was negligible for all treatments, with one exception. The spring application of 2,4-D amine resulted in 14% injury. Their report also provides details of a treatment-by-application timing effect on winter wheat yields. Depending on the timing of diverse chemicals, winter wheat yields were greater either in the fall or in the spring, usually related to instances of greater hairy vetch control.
 
Curran, et al., 2015, conclusions: The research verified that both a cover crop and the following cash-crop can be planted simultaneously and effectively treated with post-emergent herbicides. “Several synthetic auxin and ALS inhibitor herbicides, applied POST in fall or spring, can be safely used in winter wheat to control hairy vetch.” But some members of these herbicide families are not very effective. “Among synthetic auxins, clopyralid provided the most consistent control…at both application timings. Dicamba applied alone or in combination with 2,4-D amine also provided consistent… control at both application timings… Among ALS inhibitors, pyroxsulam and prosulfuron provided the most consistent control… at both application timings…. In separate research…, simulated inversion tillage significantly reduced hairy vetch seedling emergence and increased seed bank loss in comparison with shallow-placed seed bank.”

References:
  • ​Curran, W.S., Wallace, J.M., Mirksy, S., & Crockett, B. (2015). Effectiveness of herbicides for control of hairy vetch (Vicia villosa) in winter wheat. Weed Technology, 29: 509-518.
  • Hsu, M. (2022). New tool calculates crop rotation costs, benefits for California rice growers. California Ag Today. UCANR. https://californiaagtoday.com/new-tool-calculates-crop-rotation-costs-benefits-for-california-rice-growers/
  • ​World Economic Forum. (April 2022). Transforming Food Systems with Farmers: A Pathway for the EU. World Economic Forum, in collaboration with Deloitte & NTT Data. https://www.weforum.org/reports/transforming-food-systems-with-farmers-a-pathway-for-the-eu
​
​Links to additional Agricultural Best Practices:
  • Ecologically based Successional Management
  • Perennial Crops, Intercropping, beneficial insects
  • Soil Solarization
  • Natural Farming
  • Permaculture
  • Organic Farming
  • Embedding Natural Habitats
  • Conservation Tillage​
  • Water Use Practices
  • Tree Planting: Pros & Cons

Links to more Innovative Solutions:
grazing solutions
Rangeland restoration
Nudges
Copyright: Dr. Delena Norris-Tull, July 2020. Management of Invasive Plants in the Western USA.

These webpages are always under construction. I welcome corrections and additions to any page.
​Send me an email, and I can send you the original Word format version of any page you wish to correct.
contact Dr. Norris-Tull
Bibliography
who am i?
My work
my inspirations
my adventures
  • Defining the Problem
    • What is a Weed? >
      • Federal Definitions of Noxious Weeds
    • Costs of invasive plants
    • Human Factor
    • Challenges of Invasive Plants
    • Wildfires in the Western USA >
      • Forest Fires: Structure
      • Bark Beetles & Forest Ecosystems
      • Rangeland Fires
    • Climate Change Impacts on Plants >
      • Climate Change: CO2, NO, UV, Ozone Impacts on Plants
      • Climate Change Impacts on Crops
      • Climate Change Impacts on C4 Plants
      • Climate Change Impacts on Rangeland
    • What are we doing?
  • Focus of this Project
    • Why Western States? >
      • Audience for these reports
    • History: Are we doomed to repeat it? >
      • Dust Bowl Re-visited >
        • China: Past & Present
        • UN Biodiversity Report
    • Policy vs. Practice
    • Ecosystems & Economics >
      • Reductionist Approach to science
      • Ecology & Feminism
      • Systems View of Life
      • Ecosystems Health
      • Economic Growth
      • Impact of the Petrochemical Industry
      • Interrelation of Economics & Ecology
    • Federal Agencies >
      • Federal Agencies and Invasive Species
      • History of Coordination with States
      • Challenges of Coordination between Federal Agencies
      • Collaboration or Confusion
    • Organizations to assist landowners
    • Federal Legislation on Invasive Species >
      • 1930s Federal Laws on Invasive Species
      • Federal Seed Act 1939
      • 1940s-1960s Federal Laws on Invasive Species
      • 1970s Federal Laws on Invasive Species
      • 1980s Federal Laws on Invasive Species
      • 1990s Federal Laws on Invasive Species
      • 2000-2010 Federal Laws on Invasive Species
      • 2011-2022 Federal Laws on Invasive Species
      • Federal Bills on Invasive Species not passed
      • Executive Orders on Invasive Species
      • Federal Excise Taxes
    • State Laws and Lists of Noxious Weeds
    • My Inspirations
  • Why we need plants
    • Native Plants
    • Plant Resources
  • Invasive Success Hypotheses
    • Unified Framework
    • Role of Diversity >
      • How Ecosystems Maintain Diversity
      • Fluctuation Dependent Mechanisms
      • Competition-based coexistence mechanisms
      • Niche Differences
      • Species Richness
    • Enemy Release Hypothesis
    • Constitutive Defense Mechanisms
    • Evolution of Increased Competitive Ability
    • Role of Microbes
    • Indirect Defense Mechanisms
    • Novel weapons hypothesis
    • Evolutionary Shifts
    • Resource Allocation
    • Evolutionary Dynamics >
      • Pre-introduction evolutionary history
      • Sampling Effect
      • Founder Effect
      • Admixture, hybridization and polyploidization
      • Rapid Evolution
      • Epigenetics
      • Second Genomes
    • Role of Hybridization
    • Role of Native Plant Neighbors
    • Species Performance
    • Role of Herbivory
    • Evolutionary Reduced Competitive Ability
    • Summary Thoughts on Research
  • Historical Record
    • Regional Conferences
    • Timeline
  • Innovative Solutions
    • Agricultural Best Practices >
      • Ecologically based Successional Management
      • Perennial Crops, Intercropping, beneficial insects
      • Soil Solarization
      • Natural Farming
      • Permaculture
      • Organic Farming
      • Embedding Natural Habitats
      • Conservation Tillage
      • Crop Rotation
      • Water Use Practices
      • Tree Planting: Pros & Cons
    • Grazing Solutions >
      • Sheep and Goat Grazing
      • Cattle & Sheep Grazing
      • Cattle and Bison Grazing
      • Grazing and Revegetation
    • Rangeland Restoration >
      • Federal Goals for Rangelands
      • Novel Ecosystems
      • Prairie Restoration >
        • Prairie Restoration Workshop
        • Weed Prevention Areas
        • California grassland restoration
        • Selah: Bamberger Ranch Preserve
      • Sagebrush Steppe Restoration >
        • Low Nitrogen in Sagebrush Steppe
      • Revegetation with Native Plants
      • Dogs as detectors of noxious weeds
    • Nudges
  • Biological Control
    • Insects as Biocontrol >
      • Impacts of Biocontrol Agents on Non-Target Species
      • Indirect Impact of Biocontrol on Native Species
    • Challenges of Using Biocontrols >
      • DNA studies on Biocontrol Insects
      • Biocontrol takes time
    • Prioritization process for Biocontrol Programs
    • Evolutionary changes impact Biocontrol
    • Vertebrates as Biocontrol Agents
  • Herbicides: History and Impacts
    • Effectiveness of Herbicides in Agricultural Lands
    • Effectiveness of Herbicides in Rangelands
    • History of Use of Herbicides and Pesticides Prior to and During WWII
    • Herbicide use during and post-World War II >
      • 2,4-D Herbicide Use
      • 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T, post-World War II
    • Modern use of Herbicides >
      • Atrazine Herbicide
      • Dicamba Herbicide
      • Glyphosate Herbicide
      • Paraquat Dichloride
      • Picolinic acid family of herbicides >
        • Picloram (Tordon 22K) Herbicide
        • Triclopyr Herbicide
    • Herbicide Resistance in Invasive Plants >
      • Herbicide Resistant Crops
      • Controlling herbicide-resistant weeds in herbicide-resistant crops
      • Best Management Practices
    • Myth of the Silver Bullet
    • Myth of Eradication
    • Merging of Agrochemical Companies
    • Impacts of Pesticides on Environment and Human Health >
      • Pesticide Drift
      • Impacts of Pesticides on Biological Diversity
      • Impacts of Herbicides on Native Plants
      • Pesticide Impacts on Insects >
        • Butterflies: The Impacts of Herbicides
        • Monarch Butterflies: Impacts of Herbicides
      • Impacts of Pesticides on Wildlife >
        • Reptiles & Amphibians: Pesticide Impacts
      • Pesticide Residue in Foods
    • Funding for Research on Pesticides
    • Commentary on Herbicide Use
  • Interviews
    • Interviews Biocontrol >
      • Biocontrol Wyoming
      • Montana Biocontrol Interview Maggio
      • Montana Biocontrol Interview Breitenfeldt
    • California Interviews >
      • Robert Price
      • Doug Johnson
    • Colorado Interviews >
      • George Beck Interview
      • Scott Nissen Interview
    • Idaho Interviews >
      • Purple Sage Organic Farms in Idaho
    • Montana Interviews >
      • Jasmine Reimer Interview Montana
      • Organic Farms Montana Interviews
    • Texas Interviews
    • Washington Interviews >
      • Ray Willard
    • Wyoming Interviews >
      • Slade Franklin Interview
      • John Samson Interview
    • Wyoming Weed and Pest Districts >
      • Josh Shorb Interview
      • Slade Franklin Interview 2
      • Lars Baker Interview
      • Steve Brill Interview
      • George Hittle Interview
      • Peter Illoway Interview
      • Robert Jenn Interview
      • Sharon Johnson Interview
      • Larry Justesen Interview
      • Gale Lamb Interview
      • Stephen McNamee Interview
      • Allen Mooney Interview
      • Rob Orchard Interview
      • Robert Parsons Interview
      • Dick Sackett Interview
      • Comments by Delena
    • NRCS Interviews: Wyoming
  • Western Weed Control Conference 1940s Minutes
    • 1942 Conference
    • 1945 Conference
    • 1946 Conference
  • Who am I?
    • My Work
    • My Adventures
    • Contact Page
  • Road Logs
    • Colorado Road Logs
    • Idaho Road Logs
    • Montana Road Logs
    • New Mexico Road Logs
    • Texas Road Logs
    • Wyoming Road Logs
  • Bibliography